singular.htm Isolated Singularities
The Laurent Expansion Theorem. Let f(z) be analytic in the region {z | 0 < |z| < R }. Then for 0 < |z| < R,
f(z)
=
∞ ∑ n = −∞
an zn,
an
=
1
2πi
⌠ (⎜) ⌡
Cr
f(ζ) ζ−n − 1 dζ.
Here r is any number such that 0 < r < R.
The series
f1(z) =
∞ ∑ n = 0
an zn
is analytic in {z | |z| < R },
The series
f1(z) =
−1 ∑ n = −∞
an zn
is analytic in {z | 0 < |z| }.
Note that
•
If f(z) be analytic in the region
{z ||z| < R }, then
an =
1
2πi
⌠ (⎜) ⌡
Cr
f(ζ) ζ−n − 1 dζ = 0, n = −1,−2, ….
•
If f(z) be analytic in the region
{z |0 < |z| < R }, then
a−1 =
1
2πi
⌠ (⎜) ⌡
Cr
f(ζ) dζ
is called the residue of f(z) at z=0.
Isolated Singularities
For the moment, we shall consider a function f(z) analytic
in the punctured disk
⋅
D
R
= {z |0 < |z| ≤ R}.
Thus
the possible singularity of f(z) at z=0 is
isolated .
Then
f(z)
=
∞ ∑ n = −∞
an zn,
an
=
1
2πi
⌠ (⎜) ⌡
Cr
f(ζ) ζ−n − 1 dζ.
•
The coefficient of z−1 is called the
residue of f(z) at z=0, and is written
Res(f,z=0) = Resf(z)|z=0 =
1
2πi
⌠ (⎜) ⌡
Cr
f(ζ) dζ.
•
If f(z) = ∑n = 0∞ an zn, f(z) may be extended by defining f(0) = a0, and the resulting
function is analytic in |z| ≤ R. In this case the
singularity is removable .
•
If f(z) = ∑n = N∞ an zn, N ≥ 0, aM ≠ 0, f(z) is said to have a zero of order N at z=0.
Near z=0,
f(z) = zN ·g(z)
,
where g(z) is analytic in |z| ≤ R,
g(0) ≠ 0.
•
If f(z) = ∑n = − M∞ an zn,
M ≥ 0, a−M ≠ 0, f(z) is said to have a pole of order M at z=0.
Near z=0,
f(z) = z−M ·g(z)
,
where g(z) is analytic in |z| ≤ R,
g(0) ≠ 0. The function is also meromorphic in
· DR.
•
If f(z) = O(|z|−M), M ≥ 0, the
preceding exercises show that a−M−1 = 0, a−M−2 = 0,
…. Thus f(z) at z=0 has a pole of order at most
M.
•
At z=0, f(z) has a pole of order M iff
there are positive constants c1 and c2 such that
c1
|z|M
≤ |f(z)| ≤
c2
|z|M
.
Isolated Essential Singularities
Definition. If f(z) = ∑n = − ∞∞ an zn, an ≠ 0 for infinitely many negative n, then f(z) is said to have an essential singularity at z=0.
Analytic functions which have isolated essential singularities
behave very badly near the essential singularity.
Theorem (Little Picard). Suppose that f(z) has an essential singularity at z=0. Then for any complex number w0, in any neighborhood of z=0, f(z) gets arbitrarily close to w0.
Proof of the Little Picard Theorem: The proof is by
contradiction.If there is a neighborhood · Dr = {z | 0 < |z| < r} in which f(z) − w0 is bounded away from 0,
then
g(z) =
1
f(z) − w0
is analytic and bounded in · Dr. Thus g(z) has a
removable singularity at z = 0 and a zero of order N, N ≥ 0. Thus g(z) = zN ·h(z), h(z) analytic near z = 0 and h(0) ≠ 0. Possibly
shrinking r, we may assume that h(z) ≠ 0 in Dr = {z | |z| < r}. Then
f(z) − w0 = z−N ·
1
h(z)
.
It follows that f(z) has a pole of order at most N at z = 0.
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