Abstract: Sources:

From Andrei Sakharov's Memoires
 
``I had by this time calculated that every one-megaton atmospheric test would cost ten thousand human lives...'' (page 207)
 
Earlier in the book, Sakharov explains his calculations in greater detail.
 
``To return to this chapter's theme, I was becoming increasingly concerned during this period with the biological consequences of nuclear testing.  Working on the article, ''Radioactive Carbon from Nuclear Explosions and Nonthreshold Biological Effects"" (written in 1957 and published the following year in the Soviet journal Atomic Energy), did much to develop my ideas on the moral issues involved in nuclear testing; I will try, therefore, to recall just how I came to write it...In my article, I dealt with the fact mentioned earlier in this chapter, that ``the number of victimes of additioanl radiation is determined by nonthreshold biological effects.'' Such effects, including carcinogenesis and genetic change, which in theory might occur at even the very lowest radiation levels, could lead to many deaths and cases of disease as huge poipulations--ver the course of many generations--are exposed to them.  ``The simplest nonthreshold effect,'' I wrote,``is the influence on heredity...A single ionizationa event is sufficient to cause irreversible change--a mutation--in a gene...The probability of damage is in direct proportion to the radiation dose.'' I estimated that the probability of hereditary disease increases with radiation at the rate of 1/10000 per roentgen.  I posited that cancer and damage to the body's immune system (resulting in premature death) may also be due to nonthreshold effects.  An estimate for the combined impact of damage to the immune system and the cancer-promoting effect of radiation was calculated based on data reflecting an average life span reduction of five years for X-ray rechnicians and radiologists whose total lifetime exposure to radiation probably does not exceed 1,000 roentgens.  I also suggested that a global increase in mutations of bacteria and viruses (irrespective of the cause of the mutations) might have an important factor in the spread of such diseases as diptheria in the ninteenth century, or the influenze epidemic, and that low-level radiation might further increase the rate of mutations.  I therefore estimated the total radiation impact to be equivalent to at least 3/10000 per roentgen.  Bearing in mind that an average human lifetime is 20,000 days, each roentgen of gloval radiation will reduce this average lifetime by one week!  My overall estimate of the number of human victims of a one-megaton detonation was 10,000*..." (page 200-1)


*[Frank von Hippel of Princeton University has used recent UN surveys of population exposures to atmosphric fallout and of the health effects of ionizing radiation to obtain an estimate of 1,000 to 25,000 cancers and genetic disorder per megaton, which is consistent with Sakharov's earlier estimate.]
The article which Sakharov refers to is quite readable and is available at http://www.princeton.edu/~globsec/publications/pdf/1_3-4Sakharov.pdf .    In the article he makes the following argument:
 

From the Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, November/December 1998

http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/nukenotes/nd98nukenote.html

Total nuclear test megatonnage


   Atmospheric  Underground  Total
 United States  141.0  38.0  179.0
 Soviet Union  247.0  38.0  285.0
 United Kingdom  8.0  0.9  8.9
 France  10.0  4.0  14.0
 China  21.9  1.5  23.4
 India  -  0.014-0.017  0.014-.017
 Pakistan  -  0.014-0.017  0.014-.017
 Total  427.9  82.428-.434  510.328-.334 
===================
http://www.bullatomsci.org/issues/nukenotes/nd98nukenote.html
===================

November/December 1998
Vol. 54, No.6
NRDC Nuclear Notebook
Known Nuclear Tests Worldwide, 1945-98

Since the last update of "Known Nuclear Tests Worldwide" (see May/June 1996 "Nuclear Notebook"), several tests have occurred and additional information has become available about several nations' nuclear programs. From 1945–98 we list 2,051 tests by seven nations, with the United States and Soviet Union accounting for 85 percent. Almost 26 percent of the tests (528) were conducted in the atmosphere.

In one of the tables below ("Known Nuclear Tests Worldwide"), we present what we believe to be a complete list of all nuclear tests by the five declared nuclear weapon states (as recognized by the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty) and India and Pakistan. Another table ("Indian and Pakistani Tests: Facts and Figures") presents some preliminary information about the Indian and Pakistani tests.

If we use the definition of a test adopted by the United States and the Soviet Union/Russia (a single explosion, or two or more explosions fired within 0.1 second within an area with a diameter of two kilometers), then the number of Indian tests in May 1998 was three and the number of Pakistani tests was two. As we will discuss below, the precise number of devices the Indians and Pakistanis may have used and the precise number that were detonated is unclear. More information is needed to accurately determine what transpired.

Questions about Indian tests. India first tested a device on May 18, 1974. Advertised as a "Peaceful Nuclear Explosion" it obviously had military application and India may have produced a small stockpile based on a basic fission design. The test, code named "Smiling Buddha," was carried out in a 107-meter deep shaft at the Pokharan test site in the Rajasthan desert in western India, nine kilometers north-northwest of the village of Khetolai (an especially useful article by Vipin Gupta and Frank Pabian in Science & Global Security (1996, volume 6, no. 2) locates the site). Initially the Bhabha Atomic Research Center claimed the explosive yield of the test was 12 kilotons. Later they reduced their estimate to eight kilotons.

The magnitude of the seismic waves from the 1974 test, when combined with its announced depth and the formation of a subsidence crater at the surface, strongly suggested that the actual yield was less than five kilotons. At least one reputable Indian journalistic account placed the yield as low as two kilotons.

With regard to the 1998 tests, Indian officials claimed to have detonated three different devices on May 11: a "thermonuclear device" with a yield of 43 kilotons (code-named Shakti 1), a fission device with a yield of 12 kilotons (Shakti 2), and a low-yield device (Shakti 3) on the order of 200 tons (0.2 kilotons). According to Indian scientists, the blasts were set off simultaneously in three separate shafts. The two larger devices were in shafts one kilometer apart in an east-west direction, some three kilometers southwest of the 1974 test. The sub-kiloton device was in a shaft 2.2 kilometers away. (We have relied on three important articles analyzing the tests, one in the May 1998 issue of Arms Control Today, a second in the September 1998 issue of Seismological Research Letters, and a third in the September 25, 1998 issue of Science.)

If these devices actually produced the yields claimed by Indian weapon scientists, we would expect to observe a seismic signal corresponding to 55 kilotons, or magnitude 5.76 on the Richter scale. Sixty-two seismic stations reporting to the prototype International Data Center recorded the seismic signal, and the average magnitude was calculated as 5.0, with some estimates as low as 4.7. In well understood regions where tests have taken place, seismologists have learned that a 5.0 magnitude in a stable region would indicate a probable yield of 12 kilotons, with the range possibly as low as five kilotons and as high as 25 kilotons. A mid-point of 12 kilotons is less than one-quarter of what Indian weapon scientists claimed.

Of major significance is the Indian claim that it set off a "thermonuclear" device. Some experts initially suggested that this might mean India was "boosting" fission bombs by using tritium, a hydrogen isotope. Using a very loose definition, a "boosted" fission device could qualify as "thermonuclear." Indian scientists tried to dispel that interpretation at a press conference, where they correctly defined a hydrogen bomb as one with two stages, in which a fission primary sets off a hydrogen-fueled secondary; they claimed that was what they had tested. When challenged that a 43-kiloton "thermonuclear" bomb was too small to qualify, they stated that they reduced the yield because the village of Khetolai was only five kilometers away. (It was later reported that more than 40 percent of the structures in the village had sustained some damage.)

The first successful tests of a modern hydrogen bomb by each of the five declared powers had yields of 1.6 megatons to over 10 megatons. All were detonated in the atmosphere in the 1950s and 1960s, although the United States and Soviet Union both conducted multi-megaton underground tests.

It is technically feasible to scale back or "defuel" the second stage of a high-yield hydrogen bomb to perhaps 10–20 kilotons, but it is a sophisticated procedure and not something likely to be attempted on a first (and possibly last) thermonuclear test. It is also possible to design two-stage thermonuclear weapons with very low-yield secondaries that would correspond to the observed yield of the May 11 test.

But this potential explanation is vitiated by the fact that the observed yield corresponds rather well with India's announced yield of 12 kilotons for a "fission device" involved in the test. The simplest explanation of the available evidence suggests that either a thermonuclear second stage, or perhaps the entire thermonuclear device, failed to explode. Several explanations are possible, however, and without more information it is impossible to conclude which is correct.

India claimed that it conducted two additional tests on May 13, announcing the yields as 0.2 kilotons (200 tons) and 0.6 kilotons (600 tons). Although these tests are small by nuclear standards, they should have registered on some of the seismometers in the region, but they did not. The nearest station that reports its data publicly is in Nilore, Pakistan, 750 kilometers away from the Indian test site.

Based on the recorded signal-to-noise ratio for the earlier May 11 test, the limit of detection capability at Nilore for an explosion at Pokharan is calculated to be 10–15 tons for normally "coupled" explosions in most geologic media, and perhaps 100–150 tons for explosions in very porous (and dry) media, such as the "sand dunes" mentioned by the Indian press accounts of the May 13 event. Even assuming the latter "partial decoupling" scenario, the claimed yield of 600–800 tons for this event should have produced signals detectable at Nilore.

The absence of any seismic record for this test suggests that the actual yields were either far lower than planned, or that the announced yields were intended to confuse and mislead foreign observers as to the actual purpose of the tests, which may have been deliberately kept low to calibrate and validate computer models of the very early stages of nuclear device performance. As in the case of the May 11 tests, without further information from Indian officials, it is difficult to say with any degree of certainty what purposes were served by these explosions, or whether one or both occurred at all.

Questions about the Pakistani tests. In response to the Indian tests, Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif announced that five devices had been exploded on May 28. These explosions took place in Baluchistan very near the Afghanistan border, apparently in a horizontal tunnel. A sixth detonation was announced on May 30, conducted some 100 kilometers to the southwest according to seismic analysis, apparently in a vertical shaft.

Pakistani officials, like their Indian counterparts, seem to have exaggerated the number and size of the explosions, announcing the first day's yield as 40–45 kilotons (including one test of 30–35 kilotons) and a yield of 15–18 kilotons for the sole test on May 30. Analysis of the seismic data does not support these claims. The average magnitude reported by the 65 stations recording the event on May 28 was 4.9, indicating an explosive yield in the 6–13 kiloton range. Fifty-one stations recorded the event on May 30, with an average magnitude of 4.3, indicating an explosion in the 2–8 kiloton range.

As in the Indian case, much more information is needed to determine exactly how many devices were used, how many went off, and the nature of their designs.

Indian and Pakistani tests: facts and figures


 Date  GMT  Coordinates  Yield (est. range)
 Indian Nuclear Tests
 May 18, 1974  02:34:55  27.095 N 71.752 E  2-5 kilotons
 May 11, 1988  10:13:44  27.078 N 71.719 E  12 kilotons* (9-16 kilotons)
 May 11, 1998  10:13  ?  ?*
 May 13, 1998  06:51  ?  ?**
 
 Pakistani Nuclear Tests
 May 28, 1998  10:16:17  28.830 N 64.950 E  9 kilotons*** (6-13 kilotons)
 May 30, 1998  06:54:06  28.495 N 63.781 E  4 kilotons (2-8 kilotons)

Local time in India is five-and-one-half hours later than gmt; in Pakistan, local time is five hours later than gmt.

*The Indian government announced that three nuclear devices were detonated simultaneously in three shafts, two of which were a kilometer apart; the third was 2.2 kilometers away. We count these as two tests.

**Seismic records do not discriminate the explosions of two devices (announced by Indian scientists as being 0.2 and 0.6 kilotons), one or both of which may not have detonated.

***Pakistani officials announced that five nuclear devices were tested. Seismic records do not discriminate these and it is possible that only one device was detonated.

Last Nuclear Test


 Soviet Union (Russia)  October 24, 1990
 United Kingdom  November 26, 1991
 United States  September 23, 1992
 France  January 27, 1996
 China  July 29, 1996
 India  May 13, 1998
 Pakistan  May 30, 1998

Known Nuclear Tests Worldwide, 1945-98


 Year
 U.S.
  U.S.S.R.
 U.K.
France
 China
 TOTAL
 
 A
 U
 A
 U
 A
 U
 A
 U
 A
 U
  
 1945
 1
                    1
 1946
 2
                    2
 1947
 0
                    0
 1948
 3
                    3
 1949
 0
   1                 1
 1950
 0
   0                 0
 1951
 15
 1  2                 18
 1952
 10
 0  0    1             11
 1953
 11
 0  5    2             18
 1954
 6
 0  10    0             16
 1955
 17
 1  6    0             24
 1956
 18
 0  9    6             33
 1957
 27
 5  16    7             55
 1958
 62
 15  34    5             116
 1959
 0
 0  0    0             0
 1960
 0
 0 0    0    3         3
 1961
 0
 10 58   1 0    1  1       71
 1962
 39
 57  78  1 0  2  0  1       178
 1963
 4
 43  0   0 0  0  0  3       50
 1964
 0
 45  0   9 0  2  0  3  1     60
 1965
 0
 38  0   14 0  1  0  4  1     58
 1966
 0
 48  0   18 0  0  6  1  3     76
 1967
 0
 42  0   17 0  0  3  0  2     64
 1968
 0
 56  0   17 0  0  5  0  1     79
 1969
 0
 46  0   19 0  0  0  0  1  1   67
 1970  0 39  0   16 0  0  8  0  1  0   64
 1971  0 24  0   23 0  0  5  0  1  0   53
 1972  0 27  0   24 0  0  4  0  2  0   57
 1973  0 24  0   17 0  0  6  0  1  0   48
 1974  0 22  0   21 0  1  9  0  1  0   55*
 1975  0 22  0   19 0  0   0 2  0  1  44
 1976  0 20  0   21 0  1   0 5  3  1   51
 1977  0 20  0   24 0  0   0 9  1  0   54
 1978  0 19  0   31 0  2   0 11  2  1   66
 1979  0 15  0   31 0  1   0 10  1  0   58
 1980  0 14  0  24 0  3   0 12  1  0   54
 1981  0 16  0   21 0  1   0 12  0  0   50
 1982  0 18  0   19 0  1   0 10  0  0   49
 1983  0 18  0   25 0  1   0 9  0  0   55
 1984  0 18  0   27 0  2   0 8  0  1   57
 1985  0 17  0   10 0  1   0 8  0  2   36
 1986  0 14  0   0 0  1   0 8  0  2   23
 1987  0 14  0   23 0  1   0 8  0  0   47
 1988  0 15  0   16 0  0   0 8  0  0   40
 1989  0 11  0   7 0  1   0 9  0  1   28
 1990  0 8  0   1 0  1   0 6  0  1   18
 1991  0 7  0   0 0  1   0 6  0  0   14
 1992  0 6  0   0 0  0   0 0  0  2   8
 1993  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 0  0  1   1
 1994  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 0  0  2   2
 1995  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 5  0  2   7
 1996  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 1  0  2   3
 1997  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 0  0  0   0
 1998  0 0  0   0 0  0   0 0  0  0   5**
 TOTAL  215  815  219  496  21  24***  50  160  23  22  2,051

A = atmospheric U = underground

*Includes one Indian test in 1974 

**See "Indian and Pakistani Tests: Facts and Figures"

***All U.K. underground tests were conducted in the United States
 

Total nuclear test megatonnage


   Atmospheric  Underground  Total
 United States  141.0  38.0  179.0
 Soveit Union  247.0  38.0  285.0
 United Kingdom  8.0  0.9  8.9
 France  10.0  4.0  14.0
 China  21.9  1.5  23.4
 India  -  0.014-0.017  0.014-.017
 Pakistan  -  0.014-0.017  0.014-.017
 Total  427.9  82.428-.434  510.328-.334

Tests by location


 Nevada  935
 Kazakhstan  496
 Russia  214
 Mururoa Atoll  175
 Enewetak  43
 China (Lop Nur)  41
 Christmas Island  30
 Bikini  23
 Algeria  17
 Johnston Island  12
 Australia  12
 Fangataufa Atoll  12
 India  4
 Pacific Ocean  4
 Malden Island  3
 So. Atlantic Ocean  3
 Alaska  3
 New Mexico  3
 Pakistan  2
 Mississippi  2
 Colorado  2
 Ukraine  2
 Uzbekistan  2
 Turkmenistan  1
 Total  2,051

Nuclear Notebook is prepared by Robert S. Norris and William M. Arkin of the Natural Resources Defense Council. Inquiries should be directed to nrdc, 1200 New York Avenue, N.W., Suite 400, Washington, D.C., 20005; 202-289-6868.

 

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http://www.fas.org/sgp/news/1999/02/faleo.html

Congressional Record: May 12, 1999 (House)
Page H3063-H3065 

 
  ENSURING PROPER COMPENSATION FOR THE NUCLEAR CLAIMS, RELOCATION AND 
   RESETTLEMENT COSTS OF THE PEOPLE OF THE REPUBLIC OF THE MARSHALL 
                                ISLANDS

  The SPEAKER pro tempore. Under a previous order of the House, the 
gentleman from American Samoa (Mr. Faleomavaega) is recognized for 5 
minutes.
  Mr. FALEOMAVAEGA. Mr. Speaker, yesterday, the House Committee on 
Resources held a hearing on a subject that I feel is critically 
important, and I wanted to take this opportunity to share it with our 
colleagues and to our Nation.
  Mr. Speaker, I deeply commend the gentleman from Alaska (Mr. Young), 
the House Committee on Resources chairman, and the gentleman from 
California (Mr. George Miller), the committee's ranking Democrat for 
convening a hearing to review the long-term effects of America's 
nuclear testing program on our close friends and long time allies, the 
good people of the Republic of the Marshall Islands.
  Mr. Speaker, our great Nation owes an immense debt to the Marshallese 
people for their tremendous sacrifices that directly contributed to and 
continues to contribute to our Nation's nuclear deterrent and ballistic 
missile defense capability.
  Mr. Speaker, the United States in the 1950s detonated 67 nuclear 
bombs in the homeland of the Marshallese people, directly facilitating 
development of America's nuclear arsenal while poisoning the 
environment and the people in the Marshall Islands.
  Today the Marshallese people continue to contribute to America's 
security by providing U.S. testing facilities at Kwajalein Atoll. This 
atoll, Mr. Speaker, happens to be the largest atoll in the world, for 
development of our Nation's ballistic missile defense against rogue 
states possessing weapons of mass destruction.
  I want to share a little bit of data with my colleagues, Mr. Speaker. 
The total amount of TNT that was exploded

[[Page H3064]]

at the Nevada nuclear test site was about 1.1 megatons. Now, the amount 
of TNT that we exploded in the Marshall Islands was 93 megatons. If I 
could give another example, Mr. Speaker, the hydrogen bomb that was 
dropped in the Marshall Islands in 1954 was 15 megatons, which is about 
1,000 times more powerful than the two bombs that we exploded at 
Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, in World War II.
  Mr. Speaker, the actions of the United States Government have caused 
the people of the Republic of the Marshall Islands immense harm, which 
continues to this day. With some 67 underwater surface and atmospheric 
tests of atomic and thermonuclear weapons tested in the Marshalls we 
have rendered uninhabitable, due to nuclear radiation, much of these 
people's homelands. We have disrupted their lives by removing them from 
their homelands and in some cases they have yet to return out of fear 
of radiation contamination should they return.
  On top of that, numerous Marshallese have suffered from cancers, 
leukemia and other life-threatening diseases directly connected to 
nuclear radiation poisoning.
  Mr. Speaker, because of the recent declassification by the Department 
of Energy of previously classified documents, we now know that our 
government has not always been candid and forthright with the people of 
the Marshall Islands. Because of what some would consider callous 
disregard and perhaps duplicity for the well-being of the residents of 
the Marshall Islands, they no longer trust our government to do the 
right thing.
  After a preliminary review of the facts, Mr. Speaker, I submit I can 
understand why our Marshallese friends feel this way.
  Mr. Speaker, I regret to report that this whole process has taken too 
long and has been woefully underfunded. In this time of expected U.S. 
budget surpluses from which the House of Representatives last week ad 
hoc allocated some $12.9 billion for Kosovo and defense concerns, Mr. 
Speaker, we really have no excuse for not addressing completely these 
serious problems which our great Nation has caused for the good people 
of the Marshall Islands.
  Mr. Speaker, I would urge our colleagues to support full and timely 
compensation for the nuclear-related injuries sustained by the 
Marshallese people when this matter comes before us. This is the very 
least we can do in recognition and repayment of the sacrifices made by 
the people of the Marshall Islands that have ensured that the United 
States remains strong, remains free and remains protected.
  Mr. Speaker, I include the following for the Record:

                                                       U.S. NUCLEAR TESTS IN THE MARSHALL ISLANDS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Test No.      Date                Site                       Type            Yield (kt.)          Operation                          Test
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    1         6/30/46  Bikini...................  Airdrop..................        21.00  CROSSROADS...............  ABLE
    2         7/24/46  Bikini...................  Undrwtr..................        21.00  CROSSROADS...............  BAKER
    3         4/14/48  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        37.00  SANDSTONE................  XRAY
    4         4/30/48  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        49.00  SANDSTONE................  YOKE
    5         5/14/48  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        18.00  SANDSTONE................  ZEBRA
    6          4/7/51  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        81.00  GREENHOUSE...............  DOG
    7         4/20/51  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        47.00  GREENHOUSE...............  EASY
    8          5/8/51  Enewetak.................  Tower....................       225.00  GREENHOUSE...............  GEORGE
    9         5/24/51  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        45.50  GREENHOUSE...............  ITEM
   10        10/31/52  Enewetak.................  Surface..................    10,400.00  IVY......................  MIKE
   11        11/15/52  Enewetak.................  Air Drop.................       500.00  IVY......................  KING
   12         2/28/54  Bikini...................  Surface..................    15,000.00  CASTLE...................  BRAVO
   13         3/26/54  Bikini...................  Barge....................    11,000.00  CASTLE...................  ROMEO
   14          4/6/54  Bikini...................  Surface..................       110.00  CASTLE...................  KOON
   15         4/25/54  Bikini...................  Barge....................     6,900.00  CASTLE...................  UNION
   16          5/4/54  Bikini...................  Barge....................    13,500.00  CASTLE...................  YANKEE
   17         5/13/54  Enewetak.................  Barge....................     1,690.00  CASTLE...................  NECTAR
   18          5/2/56  Bikini...................  Air Drop.................     3,800.00  REDWING..................  CHEROKE
   19          5/4/56  Enewetak.................  Surface..................        40.00  REDWING..................  LACROSSE
   20         5/27/56  Bikini...................  Surface..................     3,500.00  REDWING..................  ZUNI
   21         5/27/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................         0.19  REDWING..................  YUMA
   22         5/30/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        14.90  REDWING..................  ERIE
   23          6/6/56  Enewetak.................  Surface..................        13.70  REDWING..................  SEMINOLE
   24         6/11/56  Bikini...................  Barge....................       365.00  REDWING..................  FLATHEAD
   25         6/11/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................         8.00  REDWING..................  BLACKFOOT
   26         6/13/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................         1.49  REDWING..................  KICKPOO
   27         6/16/56  Enewetak.................  Air Drop.................         1.70  REDWING..................  OSAGE
   28         6/21/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................        15.20  REDWING..................  INCA
   29         6/25/56  Bikini...................  Barge....................     1,100.00  REDWING..................  DAKOTA
   30          7/2/56  Enewetak.................  Tower....................       360.00  REDWING..................  MOHAWK
   31          7/8/56  Enewetak.................  Barge....................     1,850.00  REDWING..................  APACHE
   32         7/10/56  Bikini...................  Barge....................     4,500.00  REDWING..................  NAVAJO
   33         7/20/56  Bikini...................  Barge....................     5,000.00  REDWING..................  TEWA
   34         7/21/56  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       250.00  REDWING..................  HURON
   35         4/28/58  Nr Enewetak..............  Balloon..................         1.70  HARDTACK I...............  YUCCA
   36          5/5/58  Enewetak.................  Surface..................        18.00  HARDTACK I...............  CACTUS
   37         5/11/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................     1,360.00  HARDTACK I...............  FIR
   38         5/11/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................        81.00  HARDTACK I...............  BUTTERNUT
   39         5/12/58  Enewetak.................  Surface..................     1,370.00  HARDTACK I...............  KOA
   40         5/16/58  Enewetak.................  Undrwtr..................         9.00  HARDTACK I...............  WAHOO
   41         5/20/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................         5.90  HARDTACK I...............  HOLLY
   42         5/21/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................        25.10  HARDTACK I...............  NUTMEG
   43         5/26/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       330.00  HARDTACK I...............  YELLOWWD
   44         5/26/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................        57.00  HARDTACK I...............  MAGNOLIA
   45         5/30/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................        11.60  HARDTACK I...............  TOBACCO
   46         5/31/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................        92.00  HARDTACK I...............  SYCAMORE
   47          6/2/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................        15.00  HARDTACK I...............  ROSE
   48          6/8/58  Enewetak.................  Undrwtr..................         8.00  HARDTACK I...............  UMBRELLA
   49         6/10/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................       213.00  HARDTACK I...............  MAPLE
   50         6/14/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................       319.00  HARDTACK I...............  ASPEN
   51         6/14/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................     1,450.00  HARDTACK I...............  WALNUT
   52         6/18/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................        11.00  HARDTACK I...............  LINDEN
   53         6/27/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................       412.00  HARDTACK I...............  REDWOOD
   54         6/27/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       880.00  HARDTACK I...............  ELDER
   55         6/28/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................     8,900.00  HARDTACK I...............  OAK
   56         6/29/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................        14.00  HARDTACK I...............  HICKORY
   57          7/1/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................         5.20  HARDTACK I...............  SEQUOIA
   58          7/2/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................      220.000  HARDTACK I...............  CEDAR
   59          7/5/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       397.00  HARDTACK I...............  DOGWOOD
   60         7/12/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................     9,300.00  HARDTACK I...............  POPLAR
   61         7/14/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................          LOW  HARDTACK I...............  SCAEVOLA
   62          7/1/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       255.00  HARDTACK I...............  PISONIA
   63         7/22/58  Bikini...................  Barge....................        65.00  HARDTACK I...............  JUNIPER
   64         7/22/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................       202.00  HARDTACK I...............  OLIVE
   65         7/26/58  Enewetak.................  Barge....................     2,000.00  HARDTACK I...............  PINE
   66          8/6/58  Enewetak.................  Surface..................         FIZZ  HARDTACK I...............  QUINCE
   67         8/18/58  Enewetak.................  Surface..................         0.02  HARDTACK I...............  FIG
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Sources: U.S. Department of Energy, United States Nuclear Tests: July 1945 through September 1992. Document No. DOE/NV-209 (Rev. 14), December 1994. RMI
  Nuclear Claims Tribunal. Annual Report to the Nitijela For the Calendar Year 1996. Majuro: 1997.


[[Page H3065]]


                                                    TABLE I.--CUMULATIVE DOSES BY EVENT AND LOCATION
                                                             (Finite Dose to Next Event)--mr
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
            EVENT                    BRAVO            ROMEO             KOON              UNION            YANKEE           NECTAR            TOTAL
Days between events                        26                 11              19                 9                  9              10
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                                                                    AERIAL MONITORING

Lae..........................               5.5               12              12                 7.5               78              95                125
Ujae.........................               6                 32              17                 9.5               48               1.4              114
Wotho........................             250                270             110                55                 95               4                784
Ailinginae...................      \1\ 60,000              3,400           3,300                 8                600              70             67,000
Rongelap.....................     \1\ 180,000             11,000           6,000             3,400              1,700             300            202,000
Rongerik.....................     \1\ 190,000              9,000           5,000               550              1,400             280            206,000
Taongi.......................             280                 60               9.5              10                 10  ................              370
Bikar........................      \1\ 60,000              3,000           1,200               650              1,700             150             67,000
Utirik.......................      \1\ 22,000              1,200             700               100                330              50             24,000
Taka.........................      \1\ 15,000                800           1,000               120                380              50             17,000
Ailuk........................           5,000                410             110               100                500              20              6,140
Jemo.........................           1,200                410             130                18                200              20              1,978
Likiep.......................           1,700                170              80                30                200              16              2,196
Namu.........................               1.8               90             100                 0                 25               0                216
Ailinglapalap................               7.2              140             100                 8                  0               0                255
Namorik......................              20                160              70                 2                  0               0                252
Ebon.........................              20                250              50                 8                 25               0                353
Kili.........................              20                200              70                 0                  0               1.3              291
Jaluit.......................              20                300              70                 8                  0               2.6              401
Mili.........................              60                160             200                20                  0               1.3              441
Arno.........................              60                200             300                 8                 25               1.3              594
Majuro.......................             200                200              50                20                  0               1.3              471
Aur..........................              40                200              50                 8                 40               2.6              341
Maledlap.....................             350                120              50                 0                 25               4.0              549
Erilaib......................             390                200              50                 0                  0               6.5              647
Wotje........................           1,800                300             200                13                220              10             2,543
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\1\ Based on arrival estimated from Rongerik data.
=================
http://www.clw.org/pub/clw/coalition/ctfallou.htm
Bar Chart of Total Nuclear Tests by Year and Country (1945-98), Coalition to Reduce Nuclear Dangers, June 1999.